Biogeography and Dispersal of Micro-organisms: A Review Emphasizing Protists

This review summarizes data on the biogeography and dispersal of bacteria, microfungi and selected protists, such as dinoflagellates, chrysophytes, testate amoebae, and ciliates. Furthermore, it introduces the restricted distribution and dispersal of mosses, ferns and macrofungi as arguments into the discussion on the postulated cosmopolitism and ubiquity of protists. Estimation of diversity and distribution of micro-organisms is greatly disturbed by undersampling, the scarcity of taxonomists, and the frequency of misidentifications. Thus, probably more than 50% of the actual diversity has not yet been described in many protist groups. Notwithstanding, it has been shown that a restricted geographic distribution of micro-organisms occurs in limnetic, marine, terrestrial, and fossil ecosystems. Similar as, in cryptogams and macrofungi about, 30% of the extant suprageneric taxa, described and undescribed, might be morphological and/or genetic and/or molecular endemics. At the present state of knowledge, micro-organism endemicity can be proved/disproved mainly by flagship species, excluding sites (e.g., university ponds) prone to be contaminated by invaders. In future, genetic and molecular data will be increasingly helpful. The wide distribution of many micro-organisms has been attributed to their small size and their astronomical numbers. However, this interpretation is flawed by data from macrofungi, mosses and ferns, many of which occupy distinct areas, in spite of their minute and abundant means of dispersal (spores). Thus, I suggest historic events (split of Pangaea etc.), limited cyst viability and, especially, time as major factors for dispersal and provinciality of micro-organisms. Furthermore, the true number of species and their distribution can hardly be estimated by theories and statistics but require reliable investigations on the number of morphospecies in representative ecosystems. Generally, the doubts on Beijerinck ́s famous metaphor “in micro-organisms everything is everywhere” can be focussed on a simple question: If the world is teeming with cosmopolitan unicells, where is everybody?